Purpose. The paper considers the establishment of the paradigmatic determinants of the understanding of crime on the basis of fundamental changes in understanding of the essence of a man in ancient, medieval, Renaissance, modern and postmodern philosophy. Theoretical basis. The author determines that the understanding of the concept of crime is possible only in the combination of historical, philosophical, legal and sociological approaches. The interpretation of the essence of this concept dynamics and relevant legal practices is based on structuralist, post-structuralist (...) and hermeneutical methodological principles. Originality. The author has proved that the concept of "crime" is not a constant but a historically variable category whose dynamics of meanings is linked to a change in philosophical anthropological paradigms. Its understanding is primarily related to the interpretation of the essence of a man and the imperatives of his behavior. This allows a new understanding of the philosophical foundations of modern criminology. Conclusions. The article establishes that in the history of Western philosophy, there are five anthropological paradigms that differ in a thorough rethinking of the essence of a man. The first cosmocentric regards man as a microcosm, his soul and actions must be in harmony with the harmony of the Cosmos. The second Theocentric considers a man the image and likeness of God, though he is at the same time burdened with original sin. In the era of early Modernism, the third paradigm, which we called cognitive-centric, becomes dominant, since the essence of a man is reduced primarily to his mind. It gradually changes to the fourth – sociocentric, which focuses on the social essence of a man. However, despite its continued existence in our time, at the end of the XX century, there is a transition to the fifth paradigm – postmodernist, which deconstructs the essence of a man, reducing it to the role of an element of power systems. These paradigms, with a certain synchronicity, create the corresponding concepts of "crime": from violation of polis-space laws to identification with sin, from non-observance of mental and moral standards to social deviance. Contemporary understandings of crime are, for the most part, relativistic and constructivist, which is consistent with the postmodern anthropological paradigm. However, the diversity of interpretations of the concept of "crime" that exists in the current scientific literature needs further comprehension. (shrink)

Purpose. The purpose of the research is to define certain interaction features between a human and the urban environment in the global world. Theoretical basis. The study in based on the investigations of contemporary researchers in social philosophy and urban science, as well as social scientists of Chicago School. Originality. The originality of the research is to analyze the "human-urban space" system in terms of the influence of local space of the global world on the human identity formation and preservation. (...) Conclusions. Modern information technologies have significantly contributed into changes in the culture, society, individual consciousness and perception. They have given them absolutely global character and reorganized the value and standard system of the individual. As a result, it caused the identity crisis, so typical of the postindustrial society. Thus, one of the possible ways to overcome the crisis is to harmonize the interaction in the "human-urban space" system as an area of individual space of human social and cultural identity. (shrink)

This paper examines the use of tablet personal computers and how they interfere with Nigerian undergraduates reading culture and love for educational books. The study adopts a descriptive research design. The University of Ilorin undergraduates constitute the population for this study while 200 level students of three faculties across the university constitute the target population. Stratified sampling technique was used to sample the needed respondents. A researchers’ designed questionnaire was use for data collection. The collected data was analysed using descriptive (...) statistics. The findings revealed that access to tablet computer influence the undergraduate reading culture. Also, 55.7% of 200 level undergraduates read more electronic materials on their tablet computer than printed texts. Based on the findings of this study, it is recommended that students should be encouraged to visit the library and read textbooks since there is certain fundamental knowledge that might not be accessible on the net. (shrink)

A number of scholars in the history of medieval Iceland have emphasized the exceptional importance of law and justice for Icelandic society. According to American researcher J. Bajok, the focus of Iceland's culture was law, and the relationship between Godi and his heirs was also based on law. The nature of Iceland's socio-political institutions reveals the circumstances in which Icelanders' attitudes towards the law were shaped. The royal power in the country during the Commonwealth period did not arise, and the (...) system of chiefs or Godords became specifically the Icelandic institute of government. It is traditionally believed that the country was divided into 4 quarters, consisting of 36 Godords, headed by leaders. The year 930 is considered the date of Altinga's founding. National Assembly of Iceland. Each year, a three-year lawmaker in Altinga had to promulgate a third of the country's laws. The lawmaker selected those who were to sit on the Rock of Law and designate the place where the Courts of the Quarters, which had pending lawsuits, were to be held. The most important institution of Altinga was the Legislative Council, which dealt with legal issues. The council members were 48 leaders or heads. The representatives of the highest level of the religious hierarchy - the bishops of dioceses on the Chamber Hill and the Hills - were also members of the Legislative Council. The bishops participated in three important events for the country: the drafting and adoption of the Law of Tithes in 1096/97, the codification of secular laws in 1117 - 1118, and the record of about 1123 of the Christian Law, which was included in the Gray Law Code. Goose ", probably recorded in the XIII century. (shrink)

The position of bishop in medieval Europe was important not only religiously but also politically and culturally. Top clergy often performed secular authority in their city and diocese. European canonical practice of the early Middle Ages developed a system where election and consecration into the bishopric became an integral and decisive element of ministry. Spiritual service was thus considered elective and sacred. In the 60s of the XII century. the already mature concept of confirmatio indicated that the powers of each (...) bishop-elect begin in his consecration. (shrink)

The effect of task difficulty on inter-task transfer is a classic issue in motor learning. We examined the relation between self-efficacy and transfer of learning after practicing different versions of a stick balancing task. Practicing the same task or an easier version led to significant pre- to post-test transfer of learning, whereas practicing a more difficult version did not. Self-efficacy increased modestly from pre- to post-test with easy practice, but decreased significantly with difficult practice. In addition, self-efficacy immediately prior to (...) the post-test was significantly lower after difficult practice than easy or intermediate practice. Self-efficacy immediately prior to the post-test, performance at the end of practice, and pre-test performance explained 75% of the variance in post-test performance. The mediating role of self-efficacy on transfer of learning offers an alternative explanation for recent findings on the superiority of easy-to-difficult transfer and may help clarify inconsistencies in earlier research. (shrink)

Thomas S. Kuhn’s theory of normal science (NS), aside from being a provocative philosophical reconstruction of the relatively conservative phase of scientific research, contains useful ideas for systematic analysis of specific episodes in the history of science. Therefore, although the theory has been looked at from different angles since the first edition of The Structure of Scientific Revolutions (TSSR) was published in 1962, its detailed exploration of the cumulative phase of research in mature science is of abiding relevance in the (...) philosophy of science. This is because NS provides a compelling account of how and why members of scientific communities succeed, largely, to produce reliable knowledge about an incompletely known phenomenal world. Again, the theory elucidates special features of scientific research that differentiate it from other creative enterprises. In that regard, this paper reconstructs Arthur Compton’s research into x-ray scattering as a good instantiation of NS. Discussion of Compton’s convincing demonstration of the particulate properties of electromagnetic radiation within the framework of NS showcases the elucidatory power of Kuhn’s theory with respect to selected episodes in science, and corroborates the notion that the bulk of scientific work is a conservative puzzle-solving activity with the potential for precipitating scientific revolutions. To the best of my knowledge, this is the first time that Compton’s groundbreaking work on x-ray scattering has been analysed within the framework of Kuhn’s philosophy of science. (shrink)

This paper examines the impact of the introduction of Western (European) technical civilization on regional cultures in Nigeria, using Igboland in South-EasternNigeria as a test case. It begins with a discussion of some general features of Western technical civilization whose evolution has been profoundly influenced by technological advances in Europe and her cultural colonies in North America and elsewhere. Consequences of the contact between Western technical civilization and traditional Igbo culture are also examined. The paper concludes by discussing the challenging (...) problem of Africa’s contribution to technical civilization. (shrink)

언제까지 답 없는 삶을 살 것인가! 인류의 위대한 스승에게 묻고, 대한민국 대표 지성이 답하다! ◎ 출판사 서평 위대한 스승, 퇴계에게 묻고 싶은 삶에 대한 질문과 답 29 누구나 인생을 살다 보면 삶에 대한 본질적인 질문들을 품게 된다. 이러한 고민들을 인류의 위대한 스승 퇴계에게 묻는다면, 그는 우리에게 어떤 대답을 해줄 수 있을까? 『인생교과서 퇴계』(21세기북스 펴냄)는 퇴계에게 묻고 싶은 29개의 질문을 통해 그의 삶과 철학을 살펴보고, 현대를 살아가는 우리에게 필요한 퇴계의 정신이 무엇인지 알아보고자 한다. ‘퇴계’ 하면 고지식한 유학자, 건조하기 짝이 없는 이기심성론의 (...) 철학자라는 이미지가 있다. 그래서 지금 시대와는 불협화한 인물이라는 선입견을 갖기 쉬우나 그가 강조하는 외경의 정신은 오늘에도 칼날처럼 삶의 본질을 꿰뚫는 성성함을 지니고 있다. 그야말로 ‘어짊’을 삶으로 실천한 그의 면면을 돌이키는 일은 산만 방종하여 공허하고 들뜬 우리들 삶을 치유하는 매우 효과적인 처방책이 될 수 있는 것이다. 사람됨의 크기와 삶의 깊이는 수양 정도에 따라 달라질 것이니, 일상생활에서 마음을 샘물처럼 ‘맑고 깨끗하게’ 유지할 것을 당부한 퇴계가 우리들에게 간곡히 들려주고 싶은 바가 이 책 속에 들어 있다. 퇴계와의 만남이 ‘뜻밖의 나’를 향하는 길이 될 수 있을 것이다. 퇴계가 생각한 인간의 ‘도’란 무엇인가! 사랑과 공경의 정신으로 ‘사람 된 도리’를 밝혀야만 한다! 사람으로 태어났다 해서 모두 사람이 아니다. 퇴계에 따르면 ‘하늘의 소명’을 받들어 실천하려는 노력 속에서만 사람이 될 수 있다. 그러므로 자신의 내면 깊은 곳에서 울려나오는 참자아의 목소리에 귀를 기울여야 한다. 사람됨의 차이가 여기에서 결정난다. 이것은 물론 좌선하듯 가만히 앉아서 되는 일은 아닌바 밥을 먹고 출근길에 나서는 등 일상생활의 모든 자리가 다 수양의 도량이다. 사람됨은 바로 거기에서 드러나기 때문이다. 그리하여 자기 안에 갇혀 입신출세와 부귀영화의 욕망만을 추구하려는 이기심을 ‘닦아내고’, 남들을 나의 품안에 아우르며 그들을 보살피려는 마음을 ‘길러야’ 한다. 이것이 평생에 걸쳐 수행해야 할 사람됨의 과제다. 이러한 사람됨의 과제를 모두가 소중히 여기게 될 때 현대사회의 많은 병폐들이 해소될 수 있을 것이다. 그러니 우리는 퇴계의 정신을 역사의 화석이 아닌 오늘의 문제를 치유하는 자기성찰과 자아향상의 자료로 삼을 필요가 있다. 나는 과연 무엇을 위해 살고 있는가, 근본적으로 인간이란 어떠한 존재인가? 하는 등의 물음을 자신에게 수시로 던져보아야 한다. 거기에는 고통과 방황이 뒤따르겠지만, 그것은 아름다운 인생의 좋은 자양분이 될 것이다. 같은 질문, 다른 해석! 대한민국 대표 학자들이 빚어내는 통찰의 향연 이 책은 삶과 죽음, 나와 우리, 생각과 행동, 철학과 사상이라는 4개의 키워드와 29개의 질문으로 구성되어 있다. 1부는 ‘산다는 것은 무엇인가’, ‘행복이란 무엇인가’ 등의 질문을 통해 퇴계가 바라본 인간 삶의 의미와 죽음에 관한 그의 철학 등을 살펴보고, 2부는 ‘나는 누구인가’ ‘이웃이란 누구인가’의 질문을 중심으로 존재의 근원과 공동체정신에 대해 살펴본다. 3부는 ‘바른 직업윤리는 무엇인가’, ‘의로움이란 무엇인가’ 등 구체적인 삶 속에서의 인간 행위에 관한 퇴계의 생각을 들여다보고, 4부에서는 ‘왜 자기성찰이 필요한가’, ‘윤리란 무엇인가’ 등의 질문을 통해 퇴계가 생각한 삶의 질서에 대해 살펴본다. 이 책의 독특한 점은 같은 질문에 대한 두 저자의 다른 해석을 비교하며 살펴볼 수 있다는 것이다. 퇴계에게 묻고 싶은 29개의 질문 중 한 질문에 두 저자가 답한 경우도 있고, 한 저자가 답한 경우도 있다. 퇴계를 오랜 시간 연구해온 두 저자는 각자의 관점을 반영하여 삶에 대한 통찰과 지혜를 풀어내고 있다. 우주적인 심흉 속에서 사랑과 공경의 정신으로 삶을 산 위대한 인격, 퇴계와의 만남은 분명 독자 여러분들 삶에 적지 않은 울림을 줄 것이다. 『인생교과서』 시리즈 위대한 현자 19人의 삶과 철학을 대한민국 각 계의 대표 학자들이 풀어낸 총 19권의 시리즈이다. 인생을 살면서 누구나 한번쯤은 고민하게 되는 본질적인 질문에 대해 현자들은 어떻게 생각했는지 비교하며 살펴볼 수 있다. 역사상 가장 위대한 멘토 19명의 치열한 사유와 통찰은 삶과 죽음에 대한 질문을 자아내고, 시대를 넘어 현답의 길로 안내할 것이다. 『인생교과서』 시리즈는 호메로스 | 플라톤 | 아리스토텔레스 | 아우구스티누스 | 장자 | 이황 | 간디 | 데카르트 | 니체 | 칸트 | 헤겔 | 미켈란젤로 | 베토벤 | 톨스토이 | 아인슈타인 편으로 총 19권이 발간될 예정이다. 01 예수 | 차정식, 김기석 지음 | 15,000원 | 2015년 7월 10일 02 부처 | 조성택, 미산 스님, 김홍근 지음 | 15,000원 | 2015년 7월 15일 03 공자 | 신정근, 이기동 지음 | 15,000원 | 2015년 7월 15일 04 무함마드 | 최영길 지음 | 13,000원 | 2015년 7월 10일 05 퇴계 | 김기현, 이치억 지음 | 15,000원 | 2015년 12월 28일 14 칸트 | 김진, 한자경 지음 | 15,000원 | 2015년 11월 3010일 ◎ 본문 중에서 우리는 퇴계를 도덕적으로 완벽한 위인으로 상정하는 경향이 있다. 그러나 그의 위대함은 도덕성보다는 오히려 절대자유의 경지에서 자연과 하나 되어 분수를 지킨, 그의 일관된 삶에 있는 것 같다. 그것이 우리로 하여금 삶의 진정한 의미를 더 곰곰이 생각하게 하는 것이 아닐까. - 33쪽 아무리 험한 상황을 만나더라도 자기성찰 속에서 겸손하게 세상사를 배우면서 자신의 존재를 “옥과도 같이 아름답게 성취”하려는 뜻을 버려서는 안 된다. “하늘을 원망하지도 않고 사람들을 탓하지도 않으며, 아래로 세상사를 배워 위로 하늘의 이치를 깨친다”는 공자의 삶의 자세를 배워야 한다. 사람이 꽃보다 아름답다면 그러한 노력 때문일 것이다. - 60쪽 퇴계뿐만 아니라 모든 유학자들 사상에 따르면, 불행에서 벗어날 수 있는 근본적인 능력은 모든 사람의 내면에 갖추어져 있다. 사람은 누구나 우주적 대아의 씨앗을 타고난 존재이기 때문이다. 우리 마음속에 간직된 본성, 어떻게 보면 그것의 다른 이름은 ‘희망’이 아닐까? 그렇다. 불행의 반대말은 ‘행복’이라는 완료형이기보다 ‘희망’이라는 진행형이 가까울 것 같다. - 67쪽 갖가지 욕망으로 ‘흐려진’ 마음이 수많은 번민과 괴로움, 고통을 지어내는 것과 달리 맑은 마음은 깊은 샘의 깨끗하고 시원한 물처럼 삶의 희열을 누리게 해줄 것이다. 우리는 여기에서 퇴계의 좌우명을 큰 교훈으로 삼아봄직도 하다. “생각을 조금도 불순하게 갖지 말고, 마음을 경건하지 않음이 없게 하라.” - 119쪽 즉 나의 근원이 리理임을 알고, 학문을 통해 그것을 이 세상에서 실현하는 일이 바로 나를 알고 삶을 아는 것이 아니었을까? 그렇다면 이로 인해 퇴계는 죽음조차도 극복할 수 있었을 것이다. 대아大我인 나는 시작도 끝도 없이 흘러가는 시간의 어떤 한 시점에 태어나서 살다가 죽어서 사라지는 사람이 아닌, 영원을 사는 사람이기 때문이다. - 146~147쪽 타인의 의견에 뇌동하지 않고 스스로의 생각을 충분히 펼쳤을 때 그것이 모여 옳은 의견이 된다. 그 독립된 생각들이 모였을 때 그것이 세상을 움직이는 가장 정당하고 강한 힘이 된다. 그렇기 때문에 더더욱 자기의 목소리를 내는 것이 중요한 것이다. 옳은 목소리를 낼 수 있도록 나의 수신修身이 바탕이 되어야 함은 물론이다 - 201쪽 모두가 잘사는 세상은 누가 만들어주는 것이 아니라 내가 만드는 것이다. 그렇게 깨어 있는 사람들이 밝힌 빛으로 인해 이 세상은 밝아져왔다. 그러니 앞으로의 세상을 밝히는 것은 또 우리들에게 넘겨진 숙제다. 이는 퇴계가 가장 간절히 바라던 일이기도 하다. - 209쪽 그는 단순히 ‘착한 사람’에 그치지 않고 ‘하늘’이 인간에게 부여한 사람됨의 뜻을, 인간의 고결한 정신을 자신의 삶과 사회에서 밝히려 했다. 오늘날 사람들이 자신의 생명을 보전하고 이익을 쟁취하기 위해 ‘야수’와도 같이 살아가는 ‘정글’사회에서 그의 삶이 위대하게 여겨지는 까닭이 여기에 있다. - 254쪽. (shrink)

The republican ideal of non-domination identifies the capacity for arbitrary interference as a fundamental threat to liberty that can generate fearful uncertainty and servility in those dominated. I argue that republican accounts of domination can provide a powerful analysis of the nature of legal and institutional power that is encountered by people with mental disorders or cognitive disabilities. In doing so, I demonstrate that non-domination is an ideal which is pertinent, distinctive, and desirable in thinking through psychological disability. Finally, I (...) evaluate republican strategies for contesting domination, focusing on the limits of contestatory democracy, and proposing a participatory alternative which better addresses problems of political agency in the mentally disordered and cognitively disabled. (shrink)

The criticism of “traditional,” “toxic,” or “patriarchal” masculinity in both academic and popular venues recognizes that there is some sense in which the character traits and tendencies that are associated with masculinity are structurally connected to oppressive, gendered social practices and patriarchal social structures. One important theme of criticism centers on the gender distribution of emotional labor, generally speaking, but this criticism is also particularly meaningful in the context of heterosexual romantic relationships. I begin with the premise that there is (...) a gendered and asymmetrical distribution in how much emotional labor is performed, but I also consider that there might be meaningful and informative distinctions in what kind of emotional labor is characteristically performed by different genders. Specifically, I argue that the social norms around stoicism and restricted emotional expression are masculine-coded forms of emotional labor, and that they are potentially prosocial. Responding to structural and interpersonal asymmetries of emotional labor could well involve supplementing or better cultivating this aspect of male socialization rather than discarding it. (shrink)

My thesis is that perceptual awareness is richly multisensory. I argue for this conclusion on the grounds that certain forms of multisensory perceptual experience are incompatible with the claim that each aspect of a perceptual experience is associated with some specific sensory modality or another. First, I explicate what it is for some feature of a conscious perceptual episode to be modality specific. Then, I argue based on philosophical and experimental evidence that some novel intermodal features are perceptible only through (...) the coordinated use of multiple senses. I appeal to cases that involve consciously perceptible feature instances and feature types that could not be perceptually experienced through the use of individual sense modalities working on their own or simply in parallel and co-consciously. Finally, I offer an account of how to type perceptual experiences by modality that makes room for richly multisensory experiences. (shrink)

Коллективный труд "Методология науки и антропология" подготовлен в Центре методологии и этики науки ИФ РАН. Он состоит из двух разделов. В первом разделе "Методология науки и антропологический поворот в философии".

Discussions of the theory and practice of systematics and evolutionary biology have heretofore revolved around the views of philosophers of science. I reexamine these issues from the different perspective of the philosophy of history. Just as philosophers of history distinguish between chronicle (non-interpretive or non-explanatory writing) and narrative history (interpretive or explanatory writing), I distinguish between evolutionary chronicle (cladograms, broadly construed) and narrative evolutionary history. Systematics is the discipline which estimates the evolutionary chronicle. ¶ Explanations of the events described in (...) the evolutionary chronicle are not of the covering-law type described by philosophers of science, but rather of the how-possibly, continuous series, and integrating types described by philosophers of history. Pre-evolutionary explanations of states (in contrast to chroniclar events) are still widespread in "evolutionary" biology, however, because evolutionary chronicles are in general poorly known. To the extent that chronicles are known, the narrative evolutionary histories based on them are structured like conventional historical narratives, in that they treat their central subjects as ontological individuals. This conventional treatment is incorrect. The central subjects of evolutionary narratives are clades, branched entities which have some of the properties of individuals and some of the properties of classes. Our unconscious treatment of the subjects of evolutionary narratives as individuals has been the cause of erroneous notions of progress in evolution, and of views that taxa "develop" ontogenetically in ways analogous to individual organisms. We must rewrite our narrative evolutionary histories so that they properly represent the branching nature of evolution, and we must reframe our evolutionary philosophies so that they properly reflect the historical nature of our subject. (shrink)

Biologists and philosophers of biology have argued that learning rules that do not lead organisms to play evolutionarily stable strategies (ESSes) in games will not be stable and thus not evolutionarily successful. This claim, however, stands at odds with the fact that learning generalization---a behavior that cannot lead to ESSes when modeled in games---is observed throughout the animal kingdom. In this paper, I use learning generalization to illustrate how previous analyses of the evolution of learning have gone wrong. It has (...) been widely argued that the function of learning generalization is to allow for swift learning about novel stimuli. I show that in evolutionary game theoretic models learning generalization, despite leading to suboptimal behavior, can indeed speed learning. I further observe that previous analyses of the evolution of learning ignored the short term success of learning rules. If one drops this assumption, I argue, it can be shown that learning generalization will be expected to evolve in these models. I also use this analysis to show how ESS methodology can be misleading, and to reject previous justifications about ESS play derived from analyses of learning. (shrink)

Kant’s duty of self-knowledge demands that one know one’s heart—the quality of one’s will in relation to duty. Self-knowledge requires that an agent subvert feelings which fuel self-aggrandizing narratives and increase self-conceit; she must adopt the standpoint of the rational agent constrained by the requirements of reason in order to gain information about her moral constitution. This is not I argue, contra Nancy Sherman, in order to assess the moral goodness of her conduct. Insofar as sound moral practice requires moral (...) self-knowledge and moral self-knowledge requires a theoretical commitment to a conception of the moral self, sound moral agency is for Kant crucially tied to theory. Kant plausibly holds that self-knowledge is a protection against moral confusion and self-deception. I conclude that although his account relies too heavily on the awareness of moral law to explain its connection to moral development, it is insightful and important in Kantian ethics. (shrink)

To hold an environmental ethic is to hold that non-human beings and states of affairs in the natural world have intrinsic value. This seemingly straightforward claim has been the focus of much recent philosophical discussion of environmental issues. Its clarity is, however, illusory. The term ‘intrinsic value’ has a variety of senses and many arguments on environmental ethics suffer from a conflation of these different senses: specimen hunters for the fallacy of equivocation will find rich pickings in the area. This (...) paper is largely the work of the underlabourer. I distinguish different senses of the concept of intrinsic value, and, relatedly, of the claim that non-human beings in the natural world have intrinsic value; I exhibit the logical relations between these claims and examine the distinct motivations for holding them. The paper is not however merely an exercise in conceptual underlabouring. It also defends one substantive thesis: that while it is the case that natural entities have intrinsic value in the strongest sense of the term, i.e., in the sense of value that exists independently of human valuations, such value does not as such entail any obligations on the part of human beings. The defender of nature’s intrinsic value still needs to show that such value contributes to the well-being of human agents. (shrink)

At the core of Kant’s Critique of Pure Reason was a decisive break with certain fundamental Cartesian assumptions or claims about consciousness and self-consciousness, claims that have nonetheless remained perennially tempting, from a phenomenological perspective, independently of any further questions concerning the metaphysics of mind and its place in nature. The core of this philosophical problem has recently been helpfully exposed and insightfully probed in Dan Zahavi’s book, Self and Other: Exploring Subjectivity, Empathy, and Shame. In these remarks I suggest (...) that Zahavi’s view of what he calls ‘The Experiential Self’ defends precisely the sorts of claims to which a Kantian account of consciousness is fundamentally opposed, and while assessing the overall merits of the two contrasting outlooks is no easy matter, I side with the Kantian view. (shrink)